Introduction¶

We consider a general minimization problem:

$\min_\mathbf{x} \, y(\mathbf{x})$

Bayesian optimization proceeds through construction of a surrogate cost function $$\tilde{y}(\mathbf{x})$$. This surrogate is represented as a basis function expansion, around each evaluated point($$\mathbf{x}_i, i \in [1,N]$$). This ensures that the surrogate passes through (interpolates) the evaluated points. In the case of evaluations with noisy data, the surrogate shall pass within 1 standard deviation from the mean at the evaluated points. Analytically, the surrogate $$\tilde{y}(\mathbf{x})$$ after N function evaluations is represented as

$\tilde{y}(\mathbf{x}) = \sum_{i=1}^N w_i k(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{x}_i)$

where $$k(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{x}_i)$$ is a kernel function, i.e., it takes in two arguments, $$\mathbf{x}, \, \mathbf{x}_i$$ and returns a scalar value. This scalar is representative of how correlated is the function $$y(\mathbf{x})$$ at $$\mathbf{x}$$ and $$\mathbf{x}_i$$. The weights $$w_i$$ are calculated by solving the system of $$N$$ linear equations in $$w_i$$. In matrix notation, this is represented using a covariance matrix($$\mathbf{K}$$):

$\begin{split}\mathbf{K}\, \bar{w} & = y \\ \mathbf{K}_{i,j} & = k(\mathbf{x}_i, \mathbf{x}_j) , \, \, i,j\in[1,N] \\ y_i & = y(\mathbf{x}_i) , \, \,i\in[1,N] \\ \bar{w} & = \{w_i\}, \, \,i\in[1,N]\end{split}$

Hence the weights are calculated through the inversion $$\bar{w} = \mathbf{K}^{-1}\,y$$. Note that the covariance matrix $$\mathbf{K}$$ is a Gram matrix of a positive definite kernel function, making it symmetric and positive semi-definite. Furthermore, since with every iteration only a finite number of rows are added to the covariance matrix, efficient inversion is possible through incremental Cholesky decomposition. The mean and variance of the surrogate are then calculated as:

$\begin{split}\mu(\mathbf{x}_{N+1}) & = \mathbf{k}^T \mathbf{K}^{-1} y_{1:N} \\ \sigma^2(\mathbf{x}_{N+1}) & = k(\mathbf{x}_{N+1}, \mathbf{x}_{N+1}) - \mathbf{k}^T\,\mathbf{K}^{-1}\,\mathbf{k}\end{split}$

where

$\mathbf{k} = k(\mathbf{x}_{1:N}, \mathbf{x}_{N+1}) = [k(\mathbf{x}_1,\mathbf{x}_{N+1})\, k(\mathbf{x}_2,\mathbf{x}_{N+1})\, . . . k(\mathbf{x}_N,\mathbf{x}_{N+1})]$

At each iteration, the surrogate is updated with new data from the cost function. The locations where the next evaluation is done is determined through optimization of an acquisition function. An acquisition function is a means to estimate the new information content at a location. It uses the mean and variance calculated in the above steps.

Some sample radial kernel functions include:

• squared exponential kernel function : Infinitely differentiable
$k(r) = \theta_0 exp(- \frac{r^2}{\theta^2})$
• Matern class of kernel function :
$k_{Matern}(r) = \frac{2^{1-\nu}}{\Gamma(\nu)}(\frac{\sqrt{2\nu}r}{l})^\nu K_\nu(\frac{\sqrt{2\nu}r}{l})$

where $$K_\nu$$ is the modified Bessel function, $$\nu,l$$ are positive constants

• Rational quadratic kernel function:
$k_{RQ}(r) = (1 + \frac{r^2}{2\alpha l^2})^{-\alpha}$

where $$r = ||\mathbf{x}_1 - \mathbf{x}_2||$$

Some example acquisition functions are:

• Confidence bounds
$LCB = \mu - \kappa \sigma$
• Probability of improvement
$PI = \mathbf{cdf}(\gamma)$
• Expectation of improvement
$EI = sqrt(variance) * (\gamma * \mathbf{cdf}(\gamma) + \mathbf{pdf}(\gamma))$

where $$\gamma = \frac{\mu}{\sigma}$$, $$\mathbf{cdf}$$ is cumulative normal distribution function and $$\mathbf{pdf}$$ is normal probability distribution function